Geography

Turkey is a big and respectively green country as opposed to what many people may think. It is between 35 and 42 long latitude, and 25 and 44 east longitude. Philadelphia, Tokyo and Beijing are some of the cities around the same latitude as Turkey.

Turkey is divided into 7 geographic regions :

• Marmara (Marmara)
• Aegean (Ege)
• Mediterranean (Akdeniz)
• Southeastern (Guney Dogu)
• Eastern (Dogu)
• Blacksea (Karadeniz)
• Central Anatolia (Ic Anadolu)

The total area Turkey covers is a bit less than 800.000 sq km ( 774,815 sq km ), which makes it one of the biggest countries in Europe and the Middle East. The neighbours are Greece and Bulgaria on the norhtwest,Armenia and Georgia on the northeast, Iran and Irak on the southeast and Syria on the south. Of all, the Turkish-Syrian border is the longest.Turkey has no direct border with Russia, but the Black Sea on the north.The other seas that cover Turkey are the Aegean on the west and the Mediterrenean on the south. In other words, Turkey is a huge big peninsula wrapped up by seas on three sides that looks like the head of a horse, as a Turkish poet has put it.

The highest mountain of Turkey is the Mount Ararat in the east, on which Noah's Ark is believed to be ,and it is not far from the lake Van , the biggest lake of the country. Other known mountains are Mount Erciyes, Mount Hasan, Bursa Uludag ,and the mountainchain "The Tauruses".

The Asian part of Anatolia comprises a large part of the present day Turkey, although the area mentioned above was only a small portion of the pre World War I. Once the Ottoman Empire had its widest borders from the Adriatic Sea to the Persian Gulf i.e. Indian Ocean. The eastern region of Turkey, Thrace, lies in Europe and has 23,000 sq km surface area. The elevation rises from west towards east and stabilizes at around 800m above sea level in the Central Anatolian Plateau.

Further east, the elevation increases and reaches 2,000-2,200m on the average in eastern Anatolia. In the South, the taurus Mountains lay parallel to the Mediterranean with average elevations around 2,500m, sometimes reaching 4,OOOm above sea level. In Western Anatolia, the mountain ranges lie from east to west, perpendicular to the Aegean Sea creating fertile valleys and fields washed by the rivers of famous ancient times legends such as the Great Meander, Castros, Pactole and Selinus. These mountain ranges, perpendicular to the sea, created many peninsulas and bays and thus, a coastal line full of natural wonders.

The high plateaus east of the sunken salt lake bowl contain many volcanoes with elevations of 3,000-4,OOOm and higher. The highest of these mountains is Mt. Ararat (5,165m). The largest lake in the country, Lake Van (3,600 sq km ) is also in this region. The high plains of Eastern Anatolia are generally large areas for animal husbandry, but there are lower, warmer and more fertile plains such as the Igdir plain. The rivers that originate in this region, like Euphrates and Tigris, flow south as the elevation decreases rapidly. They water the South Eastern Anatolia region and, forming Upper Mesopotamia, they leave Turkey.

In the Black Sea, it is noticeable that the mountains generally lie close to the sea. As a result of this, only several (Carsamba, Bafra, etc.) fertile plains were formed, and other than these plains, the mountains are almost perpendicular to the coastline.

The region around the Marmara Sea, both in Anatolia and in Thrace has very few changes in elevation , and is comprised of large, flat, fertile lands.

 Arts in Turkey

Islamic Art varies substantially from Western Art due primarily to restrictions in the Koran on depicting the human form. Rather than being representational of the profane world, the perfection of Ottoman art lies in the pure balance of colour, line and rhythm in geometric patterns and designs.

Of the Ottoman arts, Calligraphy was the most important. Such mundane items as tax reports, property deeds and imperial edicts became exquisite works of art. This aptly reflects the bureaucratic nature of the empire, with its stress on writing and registering. Turkish calligraphers contributed to the development of new and more ornate styles of calligraphy. Each of the sultans had their own monogram in stylized script, called a tugra. Sultan Ahmet III and Sultan Bayezit II were skilled calligraphers. In 1928 Ataturk introduced the Latin alphabet, sounding the deathknell of the art of Arabic calligraphy in Turkey. Many of the greatest works were preserved in the extensive Ottoman archives and can be seen at Topkapi Palace, Ibrahim Pasha Museum and the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts.

Marbled paper or ebru is an art form that was developed in Turkey in the fifteenth century. Mineral and vegetable dyes are sprinkled on water mixed with gum and the gall fluid of cattle, over which a sheet of paper is laid, creating unique and unrepeatable patterns. Traditionally, this paper was used for borders on Ottoman panels and miniatures, and for the inside covers and flyleaves of books. Today mass-produced marbled paper is used for such purposes, though the art of marbling continues.

Meerschaum is a mineral substance found only in Turkey, from which pipes and ornaments have been hand-carved since the 1700's. As few Turks smoke pipes, they are made mostly for export.

Under the Byzantines Constantinople nearly bankrupted itself obtaining huge amounts of silk from China via the silk route, needed for the production of vast quantities of religious vestments and decorations. In the sixth century, a number
of the closely guarded silkworm eggs were stolen by two Russian monks and brought to Constantinople. Silkmaking quickly became a huge industry, centered in Bursa, and was inherited by the Ottomans when they replaced the Byzantines. Today, Bursa is still an important textile center, famous for its salt-dye techniques.

The art of embroidery most likely traveled west with the Turkic nomads from their Central Asian homelands. It was widely used; the military equipment of the Selcuk and Ottoman soldiers included tents, pavilions, banners, saddles and holsters richly embroidered with motifs and battlescenes, many of which are preserved in the Military Museum in Harbiye, Istanbul. Religious hangings for mosques, prayer carpets and Koranic cases were covered in graceful floral patterns in delicate colours offset with silver and gold. Many of the items of daily life, such as towels, bed coverings and veils were similarly adorned. For the Ottoman Court, silk brocades and velvets were elaborately for ceremonial purposes, often using gold or silver threads on purple velvet. Embroidery designs were based on the geometric and floral patterns used in ceramics and woven silks, though motifs and styles varied from village to village. Some embroidery was commercially produced in workshops where men and some Christian women worked, but the quality and originality of this work was slightly inferior. The women of the harems produced magnificent work for their
ceyiz or trousseaux and to grace their bridal chambers on their wedding nights. This art form reached its creative peak in the 16th century and then was revived again around 100 years ago with the establishment of Girls Technical Schools where it is still commonly taught. Many excellent examples can be seen in the Topkapi Museum and the Sadberk Hanim Museum in Sariyer, or bought in the Grand Bazaar.

Like traditional crafts everywhere, embroidery is being killed by cheap technology. However, most grandmothers still pass their time ornamenting bed coverings and clothes for their grandchildren. The Black Sea resort of Sile specializes in the production of embroidered cotton clothing, towels and tablecloths.

Turkish painting in the western sense only began in the 19th century, with the founding by Osman Hamdi Bey, himself an accomplished painter, of the Academy of Fine Arts. Turkish painters were sent to France and Italy by the Sultan, and foreign painters, mostly Italian, were brought from Europe to transfer their skills. Today this academy is known as Mimar Sinan University. The most famous of the early Ottoman painters are Osman Hamdi Bey, Seker Ahmet Pasha, Hoca Ali Riza, Sevket Dag , Ahmet Ziya and Halil Pasha. In 1919 the Ottoman Society of Painters held their first exhibition in Galatasaray.

Ottoman Art consisted mainly of the traditional forms outlined above, with the exception of Turkish Miniatures. The Sultans and elite who patronized this often representational art, kept their paintings for private viewing, fearful of the religious zeal of the public. Miniature painters were divided into two categories; those who painted decorative murals and flowers, and the smaller number, many of whom were non-Muslims, who painted portraits, sieges and battle-scenes. Turkish miniatures are not as famous as Persian ones, although they are often more moving and powerful, due to the stronger shades used and to a greater attention to detail.

It was only in the 19th century that a Turkish painting movement in the Western sense occurred, with the founding by Osman Hamdi Bey of the Academy of Fine Arts (now the Mimar Sinan University School of Fine Arts). The Sultans began to bring foreign painters, mostly Italian or French, to live as court painters, and Turkish painters were sent abroad to learn from European masters. Among the best known of the early Ottoman painters are Osman Hamdi Bey, Seker Ahmet Pasha, Hoca Ali Riza, Sevket Dag , Ahmet Ziya and Halil Pasha. They were primarily landscape painters, with few portraits. In 1919 the Ottoman Society of Painters held their first exhibition in Galatasaray. Following the war, impressionism was a major influence on Turkish painters. The most successful impressionist painter was Halil Pasha. Painting continued to develop through the thirties and forties, with increased emphasis on design and subject matter. The abstract and cubist movements were popular in Turkey, the best known painters in this genre are Sabri Berkel, Halil Dikmen, Cemal Bingol and Semsettin Arel. Today's Turkish artists are no longer bound in subject or design by their past, and a wide range of techniques and approaches are being used by the many artists at work today. There is an ever-increasing number of art galleries showcasing these young talents, with regular exhibitions of new work.

Religion in Turkey

The history of the major religions is inextricably mixed with the history of Anatolia. Both have developed and advanced together. Early Paganistic ritual slowly gave way to Christianity, only to be replaced by the Islamic faith of the invading Selcuks. The legacy of this religious past is scattered throughout Anatolia, from the ruins of temples dedicated to Zeus and Athena to the Mevlana Tekkesi of Konya. Turkey is visited by thousands of religious pilgrims from all corners of the world every year, and they are all welcomed in the tradition of Celaleddin Rumi, who wrote:

Come, come again, come! Infidel, fire-worshipper, pagan,
Whoever you are, however often you have sinned, Come!
Our gates are not the gates of hopelessness.
Whatever your condition, Come!

CHRISTIANITY

The First Christians
Anatolia, often labeled the cradle of civilization, can without exaggeration also be titled the cradle of Christianity. It was in Antioch that followers of Jesus Christ were first called Christians by their Roman rulers, and the Armenians, Assyrians and Aramaic-speaking Suryanis of eastern Anatolia were among the first non-Jews to adopt the new religion. The Armenians, converted by St. Gregory the Illuminator, became the first nation to accept Christianity as the state religion. St. Paul, a native of Tarsus, took advantage of the excellent Roman road system to travel three times through southern and western Anatolia, preaching and converting as he went. He also lived for over two years at Ephesus. Many of his epistles are addressed to the peoples of Anatolia; the Cappadocians, the Ephesians, the Galatians, etc. John, Philip, Barnabus and Peter also proselytised in Anatolia. John's Book of Revelation was written while in exile on the island of Patmos, and was addressed to the seven churches of Asia Minor -- Laodicea (near Pamukkale), Sardis (east of Izmir), Philadelphia (Alasehir), Thyatira (Akhisar), Ephesus, Smyrna(Izmir), and Pergamum (Bergama).

The Byzantine Empire
For two centuries the Roman authorities fought the rising spread of Christianity with persecution and terror. The turnabout came when Constantine the Great embraced Christianity and in 330 AD dedicated Constantinople the new capital of the Roman Empire, thus establishing the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire, which was to last for well over a thousand years until it was conquered by the Ottoman army. With the seat of Christianity located at Constantinople, believers set about stamping out all remaining traces of Paganism. Monasticism and ascetism emerged in the fourth and fifth centuries, and became very influential. In Antioch the anchorites demonstrated their piety by living on pillars, while the dendrites lived in trees. In 537, Justinian I built the cathedral of St. Sophia, an architectural masterpiece and the greatest legacy of the Byzantine Empire.

The early Church was plagued by deep-rooted doctrinal and theological disputes, the most contentious of which was the true nature of Jesus Christ; man, God or both at once. In an effort to solve these differences and define the doctrinal faith of the Christian Church, seven Ecumenical Councils were held. These Councils, convened by the Emperor, excited much public interest and speculation. The First Ecumenical Council took place in Nicaea (now Iznik) in 325 AD, and drew up a declaration of faith, the Nicaean Creed, which is still used today. At the second Council Emperor Theodosius declared Christianity the official religion of the Empire. Subsequent Councils, held in Ephesus and Constantinople, debated the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, the human versus the divine nature of Christ and the function of icons in worship. The fourth Council resolved that Christ was ‘truly God, truly man’ in one being, but the Armenian and Syrian Orthodox refused to accept this, stressing Christ’s single Godlike nature, and did not take part in subsequent Councils. In 1054 a schism took place between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches which was both theological and political. Pope Leo IX and Patriarch Michael Cerularius excommunicated each other. These orders remained in effect until they were annulled in 1965.
In 1095 Pope Urban called for a holy war against the 'infidel' Selcuks who had taken Jerusalem in 1071, thus launching the Crusades; Christian wars with motives as much political and materialistic as spiritual. The first four Crusades were fought partly on the lands of Asia Minor. Following successful campaigns in Anatolia, the Crusaders built a chain of castles along the southwestern coast, the ruins of which can still be seen today. In 1204 the declining Constantinople was sacked by the Crusaders who ruled for sixty years before the Byzantines retook it.
The Catholic Community in Turkey dates back to the Crusades and to expatriate settlers who came since for diplomatic or commercial purposes. Similarly there have been small Protestant and Anglican Communities in Turkey since the nineteenth century.

ISLAM
Islam, which means submission to God, developed from the divine revelations made to the Prophet Muhammad (570-632 AD). Muhammad was born into the Kuraish tribe in Mecca and God's revelations to him were recorded in the 114 suras (chapters) and 6,236 ayets (verses) of the Koran. It provides the basis for legal and judicial systems and prescribes a pattern of daily individual and community living. Supplementing the Koran is the Sunna, which developed from the traditions, moral
sayings and parables of Muhammad (Hadis), and on which much of Islamic common law is based.

The nomadic Central Asian tribes were converted from the Shamanism of their ancestors to Islam by the Arabs of Persia. The Selcuks were responsible for converting large numbers of the native peoples of Anatolia. Today, although modern Turkey is a secular republic, Islam is the religion of 98% of the population of Turkey.

The main division in Islam is between Sunni and Shiite Muslims. The Shiites believe that Ali, Mohammed's cousin and son-in-law, and his successors were divinely ordained caliphs. Although they believe in the Prophet Muhammad and the Koran, their religious practice varies substantially from that of the Sunnis. The majority of Muslims in Iran and Southern Iraq are Shiite. In Turkey, the majority are Sunni.

Religious Beliefs
Acceptance of monotheism is the most important facet of Islam. God is One; omnipresent and omnipotent, pervading all aspects of life. Muhammad stressed God's everlastingness, as well as his loving, bountiful and forgiving nature. God had ninety nine names, reflecting his many attributes.

On the Day of Judgement each individual's faith and deeds will be weighed and one will either enter paradise - a beautiful garden full of heavenly food, drink and beautiful women - or be cast into the fires of hell along with the faithless and the greedy. Martyrs for the faith do not wait for Judgement Day but enter paradise immediately.

Heaven and earth are populated with invisible spirits known as jinn, who serve as God's messengers and record one's deeds. Rebellious jinn are devils, who seduce people into evil ways.

Muslims believe that God sent many human messengers to teach the world His ways, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus. Muhammad was the last and greatest of these.

Religious Duties
These duties are termed the five pillars of Islam. The first is to profess the Kelime-i Sehadet, the Muslim creed of belief: "There is no god but God, and Muhammad is his prophet". The second is prayer in the direction of Mecca (namaz). Five times each day the muezzin issues the Call to Prayer (ezan) from the minaret of every mosque with the words Allahuekber, or God is incomparable. The third is alms (zekat); every Muslim is expected to give generously of his earnings. The fourth
requirement is fasting from sunrise to sunset for the holy month of Ramazan (oruc), and fifth is the pilgrimage (hac) to Mecca at least once in a lifetime.

Almost one third of Turkey's population belongs to a liberal Shiite sect known as the Alevis. In this order, men and women gather together in their place of worship, called a Cem evi, and during prayer face each other rather than Mecca, using Turkish rather than Arabic. They fast for three days in Muharrem instead of for the month of Ramazan.

Sufism
Within Islam, particularly from the eight century onwards, there was a strong ascetic, mystic movement, known as Sufism. This was made up of religious communities or brotherhoods (tarikat), usually founded by a charismatic sufi or dervish and led by a sheik. The rituals of such brotherhoods were strongly influenced by pre-Islamic and eastern occult practices and beliefs. These mystics desired to know, love and be in complete union with God. They were largely responsible for the early spread and popularization of Islam. Under the Ottomans they lived in tekkes or lodges, which were similar in nature to monasteries, and lived off alms. Two important Sufi brotherhoods were founded in Turkey.

The Bektasi order of dervishes was founded in the 13th century by a philosopher named Haci Bektas Veli (1209 - 1271). Their annual feast day is held on the fourteenth of August in Hacibektas, near Kayseri, and is attended by hundreds of thousands from all over Turkey. Accepting Ali as the legitimate imam (leader) this sect appeals to Alevis. It is a liberal, tolerant sect among whose unorthodox practices are allowing the drinking of wine and women leaving the house uncovered -
Haci Bektas pronounced that "a nation which does not educate its women cannot progress". Bektasi dervishes were largely responsible for the conversion of the Christian inhabitants of Anatolia to Islam. The Ottoman Janissary Corp, Christian converts and the most powerful soldiers in the Ottoman Empire, were mostly Bektasi. When they became too powerful, both the order and the janissaries were abolished in 1826. The order revived at the turn of the century only to be banned along with other orders by Ataturk in 1925.

Mevlana
Founded in Konya by the mystic and poet Mevlana Celaleddin Rumi (1207 - 1273) this sect influenced Islamic thought throughout the Middle East. Rumi was an accomplished poet whose long work of poetry The Masnawi is regarded as a masterpiece of Persian literature. It is often called the Divan of Shams-i-Tabriz after the wandering dervish who was Rumi's inspiration and spiritual companion. During the Mevlana service, known as a sema, the dervishes wear a full-length white flowing gown, which swirls as they perform their distinctive whirling dance, accompanied by the plaintive strains of the ney. December 17th, the anniversary of Mevlana's death, is especially celebrated. Although they were closed by Ataturk, they continue to perform the sema on special days, and their tekkes are designated folkloric venues, where foreigners are welcome to come and watch. Especially recommended is Fatih Tekke in ıstanbul, where the sema is performed every Monday.